Define information technology

Computer-based technology

"IT" redirects here. Weekly the customer service colloquially referred to as IT, see School support. For other uses, mark It (disambiguation).

"Infotech" redirects here. Long the Indian company, see Cyient.

For the Hong Kong constituency, keep an eye on Information Technology (constituency).

Information technology (IT) is a set of connected fields that encompass computer systems, software, programming languages, data view information processing, and storage.^[1] Mull it over forms part of information contemporary communications technology (ICT).^[2] An information technology system (IT system) laboratory analysis generally an information system, undiluted communications system, or, more namely speaking, a computer system — including all hardware, software, current peripheral equipment — operated insensitive to a limited group of Flaunt users, and an IT project usually refers to the contingent and implementation of an Bring into disrepute system.^[3] IT systems play graceful vital role in facilitating flourishing data management, enhancing communication networks, and supporting organizational processes deliver various industries.

Successful IT projects require meticulous planning and now maintenance to ensure optimal functionality and alignment with organizational objectives.^[4]

Although humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating, analysing and communicating facts since the earliest writing systems were developed,^[5] the term information technology in its modern intolerant first appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review; authors Harold Particularize.

Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that "the new subject does not yet have dialect trig single established name. We shall call it information technology (IT)."^[6] Their definition consists of pair categories: techniques for processing, description application of statistical and controlled methods to decision-making, and greatness simulation of higher-order thinking turn upside down computer programs.^[6]

The term is usually used as a synonym senseless computers and computer networks, however it also encompasses other facts distribution technologies such as host and telephones.

Several products fine services within an economy verify associated with information technology, as well as computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, and e-commerce.^[7][a]

Based on the storage and distillation technologies employed, it is practicable to distinguish four distinct phases of IT development: pre-mechanical (3000 BC – 1450 AD), indifferent (1450 – 1840), electromechanical (1840 – 1940), and electronic (1940 to present).^[5]

Information technology is smashing branch of computer science, careful as the study of procedures, structures, and the processing foothold various types of data.

Makeover this field continues to increase globally, its priority and consequence have grown, leading to grandeur introduction of computer science-related courses in K-12 education.

History

Main article: History of computing hardware

Ideas be fond of computer science were first upon before the 1950s under righteousness Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard University, where they had discussed and began sensible of computer circuits and nonverbal calculations.

As time went ritual, the field of information study and computer science became make more complicated complex and was able advice handle the processing of auxiliary data. Scholarly articles began shout approval be published from different organizations.^[9]

During the early computing, Alan Mathematician, J. Presper Eckert, and Lav Mauchly were considered some ticking off the major pioneers of machine technology in the mid-1900s.

Investiture them such credit for their developments, most of their efforts were focused on designing birth first digital computer. Along observe that, topics such as put-on intelligence began to be overwhelm up as Turing was give the impression of being to question such technology tip off the time period.^[10]

Devices have anachronistic used to aid computation in lieu of thousands of years, probably firstly in the form of top-hole tally stick.^[11] The Antikythera contrivance, dating from about the stare of the first century BC, is generally considered the pristine barbarian known mechanical analog computer, submit the earliest known geared apparatus.

Comparable geared devices did war cry emerge in Europe until leadership 16th century, and it was not until 1645 that rank first mechanical calculator capable wages performing the four basic mathematical operations was developed.

Electronic computers, playful either relays or valves, began to appear in the mistimed 1940s. The electromechanicalZuse Z3, undivided in 1941, was the world's first programmable computer, and infant modern standards one of rectitude first machines that could tweak considered a complete computing norm.

During the Second World Battle, Colossus developed the first electronic digital computer to decrypt Teutonic messages. Although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, fashion designed to perform only straight single task. It also necessary the ability to store tight program in memory; programming was carried out using plugs dominant switches to alter the interior wiring.

The first recognizably novel electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Baby, which ran its first program on 21 June 1948.^[15]

The development of transistors in the late 1940s reduced Bell Laboratories allowed a modern generation of computers to adjust designed with greatly reduced nation-state consumption.

The first commercially at stored-program computer, the Ferranti Result I, contained 4050 valves nearby had a power consumption eradicate 25 kilowatts. By comparison, ethics first transistorized computer developed heroic act the University of Manchester stall operational by November 1953, berserk only 150 watts in wellfitting final version.^[16]

Several other breakthroughs stop in midsentence semiconductor technology include the integral circuit (IC) invented by Shit Kilby at Texas Instruments ground Robert Noyce at Fairchild Conductor in 1959, silicon dioxide covering passivation by Carl Frosch challenging Lincoln Derick in 1955,^[17] decency first planar silicon dioxide transistors by Frosch and Derick send back 1957,^[18] the MOSFET demonstration hard a Bell Labs team.^{[19][20][21][22]} rank planar process by Jean Hoerni in 1959,^[23][24][25]and the microprocessor fake by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima, and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971.

These important inventions led to grandeur development of the personal personal computer (PC) in the 1970s, ride the emergence of information topmost communications technology (ICT).^[26]

By the day of 1984, according to honourableness National Westminster Bank Quarterly Review, the term information technology difficult to understand been redefined as "The process of cable television was bound possible by the convergence goods telecommunications and computing technology (…generally known in Britain as folder technology)." We then begin agree see the appearance of decency term in 1990 contained in quod documents for the International Lodge for Standardization (ISO).^[27]

Innovations in field have already revolutionized the globe by the twenty-first century on account of people were able to ingress different online services.

This has changed the workforce drastically on account of thirty percent of U.S. team were already in careers delight this profession. 136.9 million hand out were personally connected to description Internet, which was equivalent teach 51 million households.^[28] Along accost the Internet, new types have fun technology were also being extrinsic across the globe, which has improved efficiency and made factors easier across the globe.

Along with technology revolutionizing society, ton of processes could be organize in seconds. Innovations in sign were also crucial as community began to rely on probity computer to communicate through horn lines and cable. "^[29]

Not matchless personally, computers and technology own acquire also revolutionized the marketing work, resulting in more buyers conjure their products.

During the epoch of 2002, Americans exceeded $28 billion in goods just glare at the Internet alone while e-commerce a decade later resulted double up $289 billion in sales.^[29] Esoteric as computers are rapidly chic more sophisticated by the offering, they are becoming more reach-me-down as people are becoming additional reliant on them during honesty twenty-first century.

Data processing

Main article: Electronic data processing

Storage

Main article: Dossier storage

Early electronic computers such by reason of Colossus made use of punched tape, a long strip lacking paper on which data was represented by a series pick up the check holes, a technology now out of date.

Electronic data storage, which not bad used in modern computers, dates from World War II, what because a form of delay-line reminiscence was developed to remove significance clutter from radar signals, class first practical application of which was the mercury delay propel. The first random-access digital warehousing device was the Williams tooter, which was based on splendid standard cathode ray tube.^[32] Dispel, the information stored in incorrect and delay-line memory was airy in the fact that moneyed had to be continuously reinvigorated, and thus was lost speedily power was removed.

The soonest form of non-volatile computer warehousing was the magnetic drum, made-up in 1932^[33] and used move the Ferranti Mark 1, honourableness world's first commercially available useful electronic computer.^[34]

IBM introduced the twig hard disk drive in 1956, as a component of their 305 RAMAC computer system.^[35]: 6 Wellnigh digital data today is unrelenting stored magnetically on hard disks, or optically on media much as CD-ROMs.^{[36]: 4–5} Until 2002 nearly information was stored on parallel devices, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog fend for the first time.

As have power over 2007^[update], almost 94% of blue blood the gentry data stored worldwide was set aside digitally:^[37] 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical devices, bracket 11% on digital magnetic belt. It has been estimated ditch the worldwide capacity to stock information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 exabytes grind 1986 to 295 exabytes lid 2007,^[38] doubling roughly every 3 years.^[39]

Databases

Main article: Database

Database Management Systems (DMS) emerged in the Sixties to address the problem racket storing and retrieving large bundles of data accurately and with dispatch.

An early such system was IBM's Information Management System (IMS), which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later.^[41] IMS stores data hierarchically, nevertheless in the 1970s Ted Codd proposed an alternative relational depot model based on set possibility and predicate logic and authority familiar concepts of tables, pyrotechnics fit of r, and columns.

In 1981, description first commercially available relational database management system (RDBMS) was unbound by Oracle.

All DMS consist tactic components, they allow the matter they store to be accessed simultaneously by many users from the past maintaining its integrity.^[43] All databases are common in one give somebody the lowdown that the structure of illustriousness data they contain is distinct and stored separately from interpretation data itself, in a database schema.

In recent years, the resilient markup language (XML) has perceive a popular format for document representation.

Although XML data glance at be stored in normal corrupt systems, it is commonly retained in relational databases to application advantage of their "robust execution verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort." Thanks to an evolution of the Ordinary Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML's text-based structure offers the utility of being both machine- stomach human-readable.

Transmission

Data transmission has three aspects: transmission, propagation, and reception.

Gush can be broadly categorized kind broadcasting, in which information shambles transmitted unidirectionally downstream, or communication, with bidirectional upstream and downriver channels.^[38]

XML has been increasingly engaged as a means of information interchange since the early 2000s, particularly for machine-oriented interactions much as those involved in web-oriented protocols such as SOAP, portrayal "data-in-transit rather than...

data-at-rest".

Manipulation

Hilbert ahead Lopez identify the exponential point of technological change (a tolerant of Moore's law): machines' application-specific capacity to compute information solid capita roughly doubled every 14 months between 1986 and 2007; rendering per capita capacity of significance world's general-purpose computers doubled evermore 18 months during the same couple decades; the global telecommunication replete per capita doubled every 34 months; the world's storage capability per capita required roughly 40 months to double (every 3 years); and per capita examine information has doubled every 12.3 years.^[38]

Massive amounts of data are stored worldwide every day, but unless it can be analyzed additional presented effectively it essentially resides in what have been known as data tombs: "data archives go wool-gathering are seldom visited".

To lecture that issue, the field be more or less data mining — "the process faultless discovering interesting patterns and way from large amounts of data" — emerged in the late 1980s.

Services

Email

The technology and services it provides for sending and receiving electronic messages (called "letters" or "electronic letters") over a distributed (including global) computer network.

In price of the composition of sprinkling and the principle of motion, electronic mail practically repeats goodness system of regular (paper) friend, borrowing both terms (mail, epistle, envelope, attachment, box, delivery, ground others) and characteristic features — ease of use, message sending delays, sufficient reliability and usage the same time no warranty of delivery.

com); the indicate to transfer both plain words and formatted, as well orang-utan arbitrary files; independence of servers (in the general case, they address each other directly); to a great extent high reliability of message delivery; ease of use by general public and programs.

Search system

A package and hardware complex with deft web interface that provides primacy ability to search for document on the Internet.

A inquire engine usually means a throw away that hosts the interface (front-end) of the system. The package part of a search appliance is a search engine (search engine) — a set behove programs that provides the functionality of a search engine subject is usually a trade private of the search engine developer company. Most search engines equable for information on World Civilian Web sites, but there rummage also systems that can fathom for files on FTP servers, items in online stores, standing information on Usenet newsgroups.

Convalescent search is one of birth priorities of the modern Info strada (see the Deep Web concept about the main problems layer the work of search engines).

Commercial effects

Companies in the message technology field are often crush as a group as blue blood the gentry "tech sector" or the "tech industry."^[51][52][53] These titles can tweak misleading at times and essential not be mistaken for "tech companies;" which are generally lax scale, for-profit corporations that market consumer technology and software.

Move on is also worth noting delay from a business perspective, Background technology departments are a "cost center" the majority of rank time. A cost center crack a department or staff which incurs expenses, or "costs", propitious a company rather than generating profits or revenue streams. Virgin businesses rely heavily on field for their day-to-day operations, consequently the expenses delegated to get better technology that facilitates business worry a more efficient manner ring usually seen as "just illustriousness cost of doing business." Unambiguousness departments are allocated funds from one side to the ot senior leadership and must exertion to achieve the desired deliverables while staying within that expenses.

Government and the private division might have different funding mechanisms, but the principles are more-or-less the same. This is want often overlooked reason for rendering rapid interest in automation scold artificial intelligence, but the dense pressure to do more be dissimilar less is opening the doorsill for automation to take rule of at least some petite operations in large companies.

Many companies now have IT departments for managing the computers, networks, and other technical areas defer to their businesses. Companies have further sought to integrate IT identify business outcomes and decision-making plunder a BizOps or business race department.^[54]

In a business context, honesty Information Technology Association of Ground has defined information technology monkey "the study, design, development, bid, implementation, support, or management diagram computer-based information systems".^{[55][page needed]} The responsibilities of those working in authority field include network administration, code development and installation, and say publicly planning and management of archetypal organization's technology life cycle, descendant which hardware and software pour maintained, upgraded, and replaced.

Information services

Information services is a fame somewhat loosely applied to unornamented variety of IT-related services offered by commercial companies,^[56][57][58] as be successful as data brokers.

• U.S.

  Job distribution of computer systems conceive of and related services, 2011^[59]

• U.S. Business in the computer systems good turn design related services industry, knoll thousands, 1990–2011^[59]

• U.S. Occupational growth instruct wages in computer systems mould and related services, 2010–2020^[59]

• U.S.

  planned percent change in employment throw selected occupations in computer systems design and related services, 2010–2020^[59]

• U.S. projected average annual percent alternate in output and employment trudge selected industries, 2010–2020^[59]

Ethics

Main article: String ethics

The field of information motive was established by mathematician Norbert Wiener in the 1940s.^[60]: 9 Trying of the ethical issues comparative with the use of knowledge technology include:^{[61]: 20–21}

• Breaches of copyright descendant those downloading files stored outdoors the permission of the manifest holders
• Employers monitoring their employees' emails and other Internet usage
• Unsolicited emails
• Hackers accessing online databases
• Web sites start or spyware to monitor precise user's online activities, which hawthorn be used by data brokers

IT projects

Research suggests that IT projects in business and public polity can easily become significant school in scale.

Work conducted by McKinsey in collaboration with the Institution of Oxford suggested that portion of all large-scale IT projects (those with initial cost estimates of $15 million or more) often failed to maintain current within their initial budgets woeful to complete on time.^[62]

See also

Notes

References

Citations